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Translation glossary: AN AGRICULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY ANNOTATED DICTIONARY

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MonocultureThe agricultural practice of cultivating crops consisting of genetically similar organisms. 
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MonogenicControlled by or associated with a single gene. 
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Movable genetic element(See Transposon.) 
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mRNASee Messenger RNA. 
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Multi-locus probeA probe that hybridizes to a number of different sites in the genome of an organism 
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MutagenAny agent or process that can cause mutations 
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MutationAn alteration in DNA structure or sequence of a gene 
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MutualismSee Symbiosis. 
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MycorrhizaeFungi that form symbiotic relationships with roots of more developed plants. 
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National Institutions of Health (NIH)A nonregulatory agency which has oversight of research activities that the agency funds. 
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National Science Foundation (NSF)A nonregulatory agency which has oversight of biotechnology research activities that the agency funds. 
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Natural selectionThe differential survival and reproduc- tion of organisms with genetic characteristics that enable them to better utilize environmental resources. 
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Nick translationA procedure for making a DNA probe in which a DNA fragment is treated with DNase to produce single-stranded nicks, followed by incorporation of radioa 
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Nicked circle (relaxed circle)During extraction of plasmid DNA from the bacterial cell, one strand of the DNA becomes nicked 
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NIHSee National Institutes of Health. 
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NitrocelluloseA membrane used to immobilize DNA, RNA, or protein, which can then be probed with a labeled sequence or antibody. 
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Nitrogen fixationThe conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to biologically usable nitrates. 
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Nitrogenous basesThe purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine, cytosine, and uracil) that comprise DNA and RNA molecules. 
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NoduleThe enlargement or swelling on roots of nitrogen- fixing plants 
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Nontarget organismAn organism which is affected by an interaction for which it was not the intended recipient. 
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Northern blottingSee Northern hybridization. 
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Northern hybridization(Northern blotting) 
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NSFSee National Science Foundation. 
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NucleaseA class of enzymes that degrades DNA and/or RNA molecules by cleaving the phosphodiester bonds that link adjacent nucleotides 
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Nucleic acidsThe two nucleic acids, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), are made up of long chains of molecules called nucleotides 
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NucleinThe term used by Friedrich Miescher to describe the nuclear material he discovered in 1869, which today is known as DNA. 
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NucleosideA building block of DNA and RNA, consisting of a nitrogenous base linked to a five carbon sugar 
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Nucleoside analogA synthetic molecule that resembles a naturally occuring nucleoside, but that lacks a bond site needed to link it to an adjacent nucleotide 
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NucleotideA building block of DNA and RNA, consisting of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group 
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NucleusThe membrane-bound region of a eukaryotic cell that contains the chromosomes. 
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Occupational Safety and Health ActSee Occupational Safety and Health Administration. 
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Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)One of the U.S 
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OligonucleotideA DNA polymer composed of only a few nucleotides 
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OncogeneA gene that contributes to cancer formation when mutated or inappropriately expressed 
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OncogenesisThe progression of cytological, genetic, and cellular changes that culminate in a malignant tumor. 
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Open pollinationPollination by wind, insects, or other natural mechanisms. 
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Open reading frameA long DNA sequence that is unin- terrupted by a stop codon and encodes part or all of a protein 
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OperatorA prokaryotic regulatory element that interacts with a repressor to control the transcription of adjacent structural genes. 
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OrganelleA cell structure that carries out a specialized function in the life of a cell. 
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Origin of replicationThe nucleotide sequence at which DNA synthesis is initiated. 
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OSHASee Occupational Safety and Health Administration. 
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Overlapping reading framesStart codons in different reading frames generate different polypeptides from the same DNA sequence 
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OvumA female gamete. 
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PaleontologyThe study of the fossil record of past geo- logical periods and of the phylogenetic relationships between ancient and contemporary plant and animal sp 
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PalindromeSee Palindromic sequence. 
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Palindromic sequenceA DNA locus whose 5\'-to-3\' sequence is identical on each DNA strand 
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pAMPAmpicillin-resistant plasmid developed for this laboratory course 
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ParasitismThe closee association of two or more dissimilar organisms where the association is harmful to at least one 
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PathogenOrganism which can cause disease in another organism. 
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pBR322A derivation of ColE1, one of the first plasmid vectors widely used 
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