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The various types of studies needed to establish construct and criterion-related validity are reliability, epidemiological, outcome, causal analysis, and generalizability studies (7). Reliability studies can establish the stability and coherence of diagnoses. Epidemiological studies of the incidence and prevalence of specific diagnoses in settings and populations can show the importance and co-occurrence of diagnoses. For example, retrospective analyses of 123,241 sequential admissions to a university hospital demonstrated that nursing diagnoses were good predictors of hospital outcomes, adding 30–146% of explanatory power to diagnosis-related groups (DRGs) and all payer-refined DRGs.(47).