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English to Spanish: The Cerebrospinal Venous System: Anatomy, Physiology, and Clinical Implications General field: Medical Detailed field: Medical (general)
Source text - English The Cerebrospinal Venous System: Anatomy, Physiology, and Clinical
Implications
There is substantial anatomical and functional continuity between the veins, venous sinuses, and venous plexuses of the brain and the spine. The term "cerebrospinal venous system" (CSVS) is proposed to emphasize this continuity, which is further enhanced by the general lack of venous valves in this network. The first of the two maindivisions of this system, the intracranial veins, includes the cortical veins, the dural sinuses, the cavernous sinuses, and the ophthalmic veins. The second main division, the vertebral venous system (VVS), includes the vertebral venous plexuses which course along the entire length of the spine. The intracranial veins richly anastomose with the VVS in the suboccipital region. Caudally, the CSVS freely communicates with the sacral and pelvic veins and the prostatic venous plexus. The CSVS constitutes a unique, large-capacity, valveless venous network in which flow is bidirectional. The CSVS plays important roles in the regulation of intracranial pressure with changes in posture, and in venous outflow from the brain. In addition, the CSVS provides a direct vascular route for the spread of tumor, infection, or emboli among its different components in either direction.
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The existence of both the cranial venous system and the vertebral venous system (VVS) was known in the 16th century, but it was not until Breschet[3] made his detailed drawings depicting the multiple anastomoses of the cranial and vertebral veins in 1819 that the anatomic connection between the intracranial cranial venous system and the VVS was accurately depicted (Figure 1). We now recognize the substantial anatomic and functional continuity that exists between the veins, venous sinuses, and venous plexuses of the brain and the spine. I propose the term cerebrospinal venous system (CSVS) to emphasize this continuity, which is further enhanced by the general lack of venous valves in this network.
Translation - Spanish El sistema venoso cerebroespinal: Anatomía, fisiología e implicaciones clínicas
Existe una notable continuidad anatómica y funcional entre las venas, los senos venosos y los plexos venosos del cerebro y de la espina dorsal. El presente artículo propone el término “sistema venoso cerebroespinal” (CSVS) para enfatizar dicha continuidad, que además se caracteriza por la falta de válvulas venosas en este sistema. La primera de dos divisiones de este sistema, las venas intracraneales, comprende las venas corticales, los senos durales, los senos cavernosos y las venas oftálmicas. La segunda división principal, el sistema vertebral venoso (VVS), está formada por los plexos venosos vertebrales que discurren por toda la longitud de la espina dorsal. Las venas intracraneales se anastomizan con el VVS en la región
suboccipital. En la parte posterior, el CSVS se comunica libremente con las venas sacrales y pélvicas, así como con el plexo venoso de la próstata.
El CSVS constituye un sistema venoso carente de válvulas, único y de gran capacidad, en el que el flujo es bidireccional. También tiene un papel importante en la regulación de la presión intracraneal, que cambia según la postura, y según la circulación venosa desde el cerebro. Por otra parte, el CSVS proporciona una ruta directa vascular para la propagación de los tumores, las infecciones o la embolia entre los diferentes componentes de cada dirección. dores para el tratamiento de immunomoduladores específicos a través de la barrera sanguínea del cerebro.
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En el siglo XVI ya se conocía la existencia tanto del sistema venoso craneal como del sistema venoso vertebral (VVS), pero no fue hasta 1819,cuando Breschet[3] realizó detallados dibujos que ilustraban las múltiples anastomosis de las venas craneales y vertebrales, que representaban con precisión la conexión anatómica entre el sistema venoso intracraneal y el VVS (Figura 1). En la actualidad se reconoce la existencia de una notable continuidad anatómica y funcional entre las venas, los senos y plexos venosos del cerebro y de la espina. Este artículo propone el término “sistema venoso cerebroespinal” (CSVS) para enfatizar dicha continuidad, que además se caracteriza por la inexistencia de válvulas en las venas de dicho sistema.
English to Spanish: Climate change increasing poverty and vulnerability in Ethiopia General field: Social Sciences Detailed field: International Org/Dev/Coop
Source text - English Climate change increasing poverty and vulnerability in Ethiopia
Small-scale farmers and pastoralists in Ethiopia are likely to bear the brunt of the negative impacts of climate change in the region, which will include increased poverty, water scarcity, and food insecurity, according to a new Oxfam International report released today.
The international development agency’s report, “The Rain Doesn’t Come on Time Anymore: Poverty, Vulnerability, and Climate Variability in Ethiopia,” was launched at a special Earth Day celebration organized by the Climate Change Forum-Ethiopia in collaboration with other environmental organizations. While Ethiopia has always suffered from great climatic variability, including droughts that have contributed to hunger and even famine in the past, the report details how climate change is set to make the lives of the poorest even harder.
A country of farmers
“People who are already poor and marginalized are struggling to cope with the added burden of increasingly unpredictable weather,” said Abera Tola, Oxfam’s Horn of Africa regional director. “It is getting harder and harder for families and communities to bounce back from ever-changing, inconsistent weather affecting their livelihoods, and many have been forced to sell livestock or remove children from school – coping mechanisms that only increase the cycle of vulnerability.”
Ethiopia is one of the poorest countries in the world and 85 percent of the population depends on agriculture for their livelihood. The agricultural sector is especially vulnerable to the adversities of weather and climate since it is rain fed, done using relatively basic technologies, and on tiny plots of land.
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Oxfam has made several recommendations – at the national, regional and community level – for the development of a holistic approach to increase resilience, so communities can bounce back from climatic shocks quicker.
Recommendations at the national level include:
Prepare and implement a national framework for guiding climate change adaptation and mitigation, building on the National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) and integrated with the Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty (PASDEP)
Investing in agricultural research on the use of new crop varieties and livestock species that are more tolerant to drought.
Ensuring civil society and community participation, especially women’s groups, both in formulating climate change policies and in integrating climate change into development priorities.
Ensuring priorities and investments address the gendered impact of climate change.
Strengthen cooperation among policymakers, nongovernmental organizations, research institutions, and the media.
Recommendations at the community level include:
Investing in livelihood opportunities and risk management strategies for poor farmers and pastoralists, particularly women.
Investing and improving agriculture extension services
Preparing long-term adaptation plans based on the sharing of best practices through community participation, civil society engagement, and the participation of academic and research institutions, with regular monitoring to identify promising practices for scaling up.
Building on what farmers and pastoralists are already doing to adapt to climate variability and change. Investigate these practices further for their sustainability and impact on poverty and inequality, and potential for replication or enhancement.
Investing in new forestation programs, reforestation, and sustainable management of the remaining forests. Ensure that management systems guarantee a return to the communities that manage the resource – the only way to ensure genuinely sustainable use of forests and woodland.
Investing in community environmental and drought monitoring systems and improve community disaster risk reduction capacity.
Increasing use of renewable energy such as solar energy and promoting photovoltaic technology.
Rich countries must help Ethiopia adapt
Oxfam has also asserted that developed countries have the responsibility to not only reduce emissions that cause climate change, but also help Ethiopia adapt to climate change impacts that will still affect the poorest, no matter how fast we reduce emissions.
“Climate change is impacting the poorest first, despite the fact that they didn’t contribute to the crisis,” said Tola. “As global climate change negotiations continue, world leaders must not forget the fact that poor people are dealing with the negative impacts of a changing climate every day.”
Translation - Spanish El cambio climático aumenta la pobreza y la vulnerabilidad en Etiopía
Según un nuevo informe publicado por Oxfam Internacional el pasado 22 de abril, los pequeños agricultores y los pastores de Etiopía sufrirán el impacto negativo del cambio climático en la región, que traerá un aumento de la pobreza, así como escasez de agua y de alimentos.
El informe elaborado por la agencia de desarrollo internacional y titulado “The Rain Doesn’t Come on Time Anymore: Poverty, Vulnerability and Climate Variability in Ethiopia” (“La lluvia ya no viene a tiempo: pobreza, vulnerabilidad y cambio climático en Etiopía”), se publicó durante la celebración especial del Día del Planeta, que fue organizado por el Foro Cambio Climático-Etiopía en colaboración con otras organizaciones dedicadas al medio ambiente. Si bien Etiopía siempre ha sufrido importantes cambios climáticos, con sequías que han acarreado el hambre e incluso la hambruna, y el informe detalla cómo el actual cambio climático dificultará aún más las vidas de los más pobres.
"Los que ya son pobres y marginados están pasando apuros para sobrellevar la carga adicional de un clima imprevisible", comenta Abera Tola, Director Ejecutivo de Oxfam en el Cuerno de África. "A las familias y comunidades les resulta cada vez más difícil responder a un clima impredecible que continuamente está variando, y que afecta directamente a sus medios de vida. Muchos se ven obligados a vender su ganado o a sacar a los niños de los centros escolares. Se trata de mecanismos de supervivencia que no hacen sino aumentar el ciclo de vulnerabilidad".
Un país que vive de la agricultura
Etiopía es una de las naciones más pobres del planeta y el 85% de la población depende de la agricultura como medio de subsistencia. El sector agrícola es particularmente vulnerable a las adversidades del tiempo y el clima, pues depende de la lluvia, se apoya en tecnología relativamente básica, y se planta en terrenos muy pequeños.
"Desde el Valle del Rift hasta la región de Tigray, los agricultores y los pastores de todo el país nos han hablado del impacto que el cambio climático está teniendo en sus comunidades, arruinando las cosechas y matando al ganado", añade Tola. "Incluso los cambios más pequeños durante la temporada de crecimiento pueden ser desastrosos para los agricultores más pobres y los pastores que ya están malviviendo en la pobreza."
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Oxfam ha hecho diversas recomendaciones a nivel nacional, regional y comunitario, con el fin de elaborar un acercamiento integral que aumente la capacidad de recuperación de los etíopes, y que permitan que las comunidades se recobren más rápidamente de los cambios climáticos.
A nivel nacional Oxfam recomienda:
Preparar e implementar un marco de trabajo público, para orientar sobre la adaptación y mitigación frente al cambio climático, que esté basado en el Programa Nacional de Acción para la Adaptación (NAPA), y que responda a la Estrategia Nacional de Reducción de la Pobreza (PASDEP).
Invertir en la investigación de temas agrícolas, particularmente el uso de nuevas variedades de cultivos y ganado que toleren mejor la sequía.
Asegurar la participación de la sociedad civil y de las comunidades, y en particular de las mujeres, a la hora de formular políticas sobre el cambio climático y de integrar el cambio climático dentro de las prioridades para el desarrollo.
Garantizar que las prioridades y las inversiones reflejen el impacto del cambio climático sobre el género.
Fortalecer la cooperación entre los diseñadores de políticas, las organizaciones no gubernamentales, los centros de investigación y los medios de comunicación.
Para las comunidades Oxfam recomienda:
Invertir en medios de vida alternativos y financiar estrategias para gestionar los imprevistos, ambos dirigidos a los agricultores y los pastores pobres, especialmente si son mujeres.
Financiar y mejorar los servicios dependientes de la agricultura.
Elaborar estrategias de adaptación a largo plazo, que reúnan las mejores prácticas a partir de la cooperación entre las comunidades, la sociedad civil, las instituciones académicas y los centros de investigación. Se ha de monitorear dichas estrategias regularmente, con el fin de identificar las prácticas más prometedoras.
Apoyarse en el trabajo que los agricultores y los pastores están llevando a cabo para adaptarse al cambio climático y al cambio de sus circunstancias. Investigar la durabilidad de dichas prácticas, el impacto que tienen en la pobreza y la desigualdad, y el potencial para replicarlas o mejorarlas.
Invertir en nuevos programas de forestación, repoblación forestal, y la gestión sostenible de los bosques restantes. Asegurar que los sistemas de gestión supongan una inversión garantizada para las comunidades que gestionan dichas fuentes, pues es el único medio de afianzar que los bosques y las zonas forestales se manejan realmente de un modo sostenible.
Financiar los sistemas de monitoreo para el medio ambiente y la sequía dentro de las comunidades, y mejorar la capacidad de las mismas para mitigar el riesgo de situaciones críticas.
Incrementar el uso de las energías renovables, tales como la energía solar, y promover la energía fotovoltaica.
De igual modo, Oxfam ha afirmado que los países desarrollados no solo tienen la obligación de reducir la emisiones que causan el cambio climático, pero también han de ayudar a que Etiopía se adapte al impacto de dicho cambio, que seguirá afectando a los más pobres, independientemente de la velocidad a la que reduzcamos las emisiones.
"El cambio climático afecta primero a los más pobres, aunque no hayan contribuido a la crisis", concluyó Tola. "En las continuas negociaciones internacionales sobre el cambio climático, los líderes mundiales no deben olvidarse de que los pobres están sufriendo a diario las consecuencias del cambio climático".
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